GNAQ

Gene Summary

Gene:GNAQ; G protein subunit alpha q
Aliases: GAQ, SWS, CMC1, G-ALPHA-q
Location:9q21.2
Summary:This locus encodes a guanine nucleotide-binding protein. The encoded protein, an alpha subunit in the Gq class, couples a seven-transmembrane domain receptor to activation of phospolipase C-beta. Mutations at this locus have been associated with problems in platelet activation and aggregation. A related pseudogene exists on chromosome 2.[provided by RefSeq, Nov 2010]
Databases:OMIM, HGNC, Ensembl, GeneCard, Gene
Protein:guanine nucleotide-binding protein G(q) subunit alpha
Source:NCBIAccessed: 31 August, 2019

Ontology:

What does this gene/protein do?
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Pathways:What pathways are this gene/protein implicaed in?
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Cancer Overview

Research Indicators

Publications Per Year (1994-2019)
Graph generated 31 August 2019 using data from PubMed using criteria.

Literature Analysis

Mouse over the terms for more detail; many indicate links which you can click for dedicated pages about the topic.

  • Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-kit
  • Veins
  • Vascular Neoplasms
  • High-Throughput Nucleotide Sequencing
  • Vemurafenib
  • Uveal Neoplasms
  • Up-Regulation
  • Chromosome 9
  • Spinal Cord Neoplasms
  • Tumor Suppressor Proteins
  • Melanocytes
  • GTP-Binding Protein alpha Subunits, Gq-G11
  • GTP-Binding Protein alpha Subunits
  • rac1 GTP-Binding Protein
  • FGFR1
  • DNA Mutational Analysis
  • Neoplasm Metastasis
  • RNA Splicing Factors
  • rho GTP-Binding Proteins
  • Xenograft Models
  • Treatment Failure
  • Cancer DNA
  • Mutation
  • White Matter
  • Thoracic Vertebrae
  • Melanoma
  • GNAQ
  • Terminology as Topic
  • Ubiquitin Thiolesterase
  • Phenotype
  • Genetic Predisposition
  • Thyroid Nodule
  • Phosphoproteins
  • Eye Cancer
  • Nevus, Blue
  • Polymerase Chain Reaction
  • Visual Acuity
  • Sturge-Weber Syndrome
  • Sensitivity and Specificity
  • Biomarkers, Tumor
  • Sunlight
  • Tissue Fixation
Tag cloud generated 31 August, 2019 using data from PubMed, MeSH and CancerIndex

Specific Cancers (3)

Data table showing topics related to specific cancers and associated disorders. Scope includes mutations and abnormal protein expression.

Note: list is not exhaustive. Number of papers are based on searches of PubMed (click on topic title for arbitrary criteria used).

Latest Publications: GNAQ (cancer-related)

Belysheva TS, Vishnevskaya YV, Nasedkina TV, et al.
Melanoma arising in a Giant congenital melanocytic nevus: two case reports.
Diagn Pathol. 2019; 14(1):21 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
BACKGROUND: A giant congenital melanocytic nevus (GCMN) is found in 0.1% of live-born infants. If present, the lesion has a chance of about 6% to develop into malignant melanoma. Both children and adults can be affected by malignant melanoma arising in a giant congenital nevus. Up to 95% of GCMNs harbor NRAS mutations, and mutations in the BRAF, MC1R, TP53, and GNAQ genes have also been described. The individualization of therapy is required, but diagnostic and prognostic criteria remain controversial.
CASE PRESENTATIONS: We report two cases: 1) melanoma arising in a giant congenital nevus during the first month of life complicated with neurocutaneous melanosis (NCM), and 2) melanoma arising in a giant congenital nevus during the first 6 months of life. Pathology, immunohistochemistry, and genetic analyses of tumor tissue were performed. The first case revealed only a non-pathogenic P72R polymorphism of the TP53 gene in the homozygote condition. For the second case, a Q61K mutation was detected in the NRAS gene.
CONCLUSION: Malignant melanoma associated with GCMN is rare and therefore poorly understood. Outcomes have been linked to the stage at diagnosis, but no additional pathological prognostic factors have been identified. The most frequent genetic event in giant CMNs is NRAS mutations, which was discovered in one of our cases. To accumulate evidence to improve disease prognosis and outcomes, children with congenital melanocytic nevus should be included in a systemic follow-up study from birth.

Rose AM, Luo R, Radia UK, et al.
Detection of mutations in SF3B1, EIF1AX and GNAQ in primary orbital melanoma by candidate gene analysis.
BMC Cancer. 2018; 18(1):1262 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
BACKGROUND: Ocular melanoma is a rare but often deadly malignancy that arises in the uvea (commonest primary site), conjunctiva or the orbit. Primary orbital melanoma (POM) is exceedingly rare, with approximately 60 cases reported to date. Despite recent advances in our understanding of the genetics of primary uveal and conjunctival melanomas, this information is lacking for POM.
METHODS: DNA was extracted from 12 POM tissues, with matched germline DNA (where available). MLPA was conducted to detect chromosomal alterations and Sanger sequencing used to identify point mutations in candidate melanoma driver genes (BRAF, NRAS, KRAS, GNA11, GNAQ), and other genes implicated in melanoma prognosis (EIF1AX, SF3B1). Immunohistochemistry was performed to analyse BAP1 nuclear expression.
RESULTS: MLPA detected copy number alterations in chromosomes 1p, 3, 6 and 8. Sequencing of melanoma driver genes revealed GNAQ (p.Q209L) mutations in two samples; although it is possible that these samples represent extraocular spread of an occult uveal melanoma. A recurrent mutation in SF3B1 (p.R625H) was observed in indolent, but not aggressive, tumours; a mutation in EIF1AX (p.N4S) was detected in one patient with non-aggressive disease.
CONCLUSIONS: EIF1AX and SF3B1 mutations appear have a role in determining the clinical course of POM and detection of these changes could have clinical significance. Further in depth analysis of this rare group using differing 'omic technologies will provide novel insights into tumour pathogenesis.

Konstantinov NK, Berry TM, Elwood HR, Zlotoff BJ
Nevus of Ota associated with a primary uveal melanoma and intracranial melanoma metastasis.
Cutis. 2018; 102(3):E2-E4 [PubMed] Related Publications
Nevus of Ota is a blue, hyperpigmented, benign dermatosis of the skin and mucosae that most often occurs unilaterally in the distribution of the ophthalmic (V1) and maxillary (V2) branches of the trigeminal nerve. Although uncommon, association with malignant melanoma is a complication that must be considered in the evaluation of patients with nevus of Ota. Mutations in the

Eichenfield DZ, Cotter D, Thorson J, et al.
Agminated blue nevus with a GNAQ mutation: A case report and review of the literature.
J Cutan Pathol. 2019; 46(2):130-133 [PubMed] Related Publications
Agminated blue nevi are dermal melanocytic proliferations that classically present as dark blue macules or papules in a grouped, linear, or blaschkoid distribution. In their more common sporadic form, blue nevi manifest in young adulthood as solitary blue papules or macules on the scalp, face, hands, or feet. By contrast, agminated blue nevi tend to manifest earlier in life, and are distributed more evenly across anatomic sites. Recent studies have identified mutations in sporadic blue nevi in the genes encoding G Protein subunit alpha Q and G protein subunit alpha 11 (GNAQ and GNA11). It is unknown whether agminated blue nevi share the same genetic changes. In the present paper, we present a case of agminated blue nevus on the wrist, and identify an activating mutation (c.626A > T, p.Glu209Leu) in GNAQ. We hypothesize that GNAQ/GNA11 activating mutations arising earlier during development may trigger agminated blue nevi, explaining the broader field of involvement in these cutaneous lesions.

Koh J, Nam SK, Roh H, et al.
Somatic mutational profiles of stage II and III gastric cancer according to tumor microenvironment immune type.
Genes Chromosomes Cancer. 2019; 58(1):12-22 [PubMed] Related Publications
We aimed to determine somatic mutational profiles of stage II/III gastric cancers (GCs) according to their tumor microenvironment immune types (TMITs), which classify cancer based on co-assessment of PD-L1 expression and CD8

Kennedy S, Rice M, Toomey S, et al.
An insight into the molecular genetics of a uveal melanoma patient cohort.
J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 2018; 144(10):1861-1868 [PubMed] Related Publications
BACKGROUND/AIMS: Uveal melanoma (UM) is a highly aggressive malignancy and presents a clinically significant unmet need in cancer therapeutics. The aim of this study was to identify previously unreported mutations in UM among an Irish cohort of patients which may have potential clinical relevance.
METHODS: DNA was extracted from 36 intraocular melanoma patient samples and 4 metastatic melanoma samples among the patient cohort by microdissection from formalin-fixed paraffin embedded tissue blocks and underwent genotyping to test for known single nucleotide polymorphisms in 42 cancer associated genes. These mutations were analysed using a custom-designed sequenom panel.
RESULTS: Using high-throughput genotyping, mutually exclusive GNAQ and GNA11 mutations were detected in 31 of 34 UM patients together with a number of non-synonymous changes in established cancer driver genes, PHLPP2, MET, PIK3R1 and IDH-1, variants which have not been previously associated with UM.
CONCLUSION: Given the lack of knowledge regarding the clinical relevance of the variants identified in this UM cohort and their likely pathogenic nature in other cancers, further studies of the functional impact of these variant mutations are warranted to establish possible previously, undescribed roles in UM pathogenesis, which may provide additional targets for future therapies.

Zięba S, Kowalik A, Zalewski K, et al.
Somatic mutation profiling of vulvar cancer: Exploring therapeutic targets.
Gynecol Oncol. 2018; 150(3):552-561 [PubMed] Related Publications
BACKGROUND: Vulvar squamous cell carcinoma (VSCC) constitutes over 90% of vulvar cancer. Its pathogenesis can follow two different pathways; high risk human papillomavirus (hrHPV)-dependent and HPV-independent. Due to the rarity of VSCC, molecular mechanisms underlying VSCC development remain largely unknown. The study aimed to identify pathogenic mutations implicated in the two pathways of VSCC development.
METHODS: Using next generation sequencing, 81 VSCC tumors, 52 hrHPV(+) and 29 hrHPV(-), were screened for hotspot mutations in 50 genes covered by the Ion AmpliSeq Cancer Hotspot Panel v2 Kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific).
RESULTS: Mutations of TP53 (46% and 41%, of hrHPV(+) and hrHPV(-) cases respectively) and CDKN2A (p16) (25% and 21%, of hrHPV(+) and hrHPV(-) cases respectively) were the most common genetic alterations identified in VSCC tumors. Further mutations were identified in PIK3CA, FBXW7, HRAS, FGFR3, STK11, AKT1, SMAD4, FLT3, JAK3, GNAQ, and PTEN, albeit at low frequencies. Some of the identified mutations may activate the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway. The activation of mTOR was confirmed in the vast majority of VSCC samples by immunohistochemical staining.
CONCLUSIONS: Detecting pathogenic mutations in 13/50 genes examined at comparable frequencies in hrHPV(+) and hrHPV(-) tumors suggest that genetic mechanisms of the two routes of VSCC pathogenesis may be similar, despite being initiated from different premalignant lesions. Importantly, our data provide a rationale for new anti-VSCC therapies targeting the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway.

Park JJ, Diefenbach RJ, Joshua AM, et al.
Oncogenic signaling in uveal melanoma.
Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2018; 31(6):661-672 [PubMed] Related Publications
Uveal melanoma is the most common primary cancer of the eye, and despite rapidly emerging insights into the molecular profile of this disease, prognosis of patients with metastatic uveal melanoma remains poor with mortality rates unchanged in over 35 years. Early genetic events activate G protein-coupled receptor signaling in nearly all uveal tumors via mutually exclusive mutations in the GNAQ, GNA11, CYSLTR2, or PLCB4 genes. A multitude of signaling cascades downstream of G protein activation, including protein kinase C and mitogen-activated protein kinase activity, are actionable, and many ongoing clinical trials are targeting these pathways. Additional cytogenetic and genetic changes, however, including chromosome 3 monosomy, mutations in the BAP1 tumor suppressor gene, alterations in the splicing factors SRSF2/SF3B1, and mutations in the translation initiation factor EIF1AX, modulate signaling output in uveal tumors and modify the risk of metastases. Here, we review the complex interactions between genetic, molecular signaling, and prognostic profiles in uveal melanoma; the clinical implications of these interactions; and the latest potential targets for rational therapy.

van Poppelen NM, Yavuzyigitoglu S, Smit KN, et al.
Chromosomal rearrangements in uveal melanoma: Chromothripsis.
Genes Chromosomes Cancer. 2018; 57(9):452-458 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Uveal melanoma (UM) is the most common primary intraocular malignancy in the Western world. Recurrent mutations in GNAQ, GNA11, CYSLTR2, PLCB4, BAP1, EIF1AX, and SF3B1 are described as well as non-random chromosomal aberrations. Chromothripsis is a rare event in which chromosomes are shattered and rearranged and has been reported in a variety of cancers including UM. SNP arrays of 249 UM from patients who underwent enucleation, biopsy or endoresection were reviewed for the presence of chromothripsis. Chromothripsis was defined as ten or more breakpoints per chromosome involved. Genetic analysis of GNAQ, GNA11, BAP1, SF3B1, and EIF1AX was conducted using Sanger and next-generation sequencing. In addition, immunohistochemistry for BAP1 was performed. Chromothripsis was detected in 7 out of 249 tumors and the affected chromosomes were chromosomes 3, 5, 6, 8, 12, and 13. The mean total of fragments per chromosome was 39.8 (range 12-116). In 1 UM, chromothripsis was present in 2 different chromosomes. GNAQ, GNA11 or CYSLTR2 mutations were present in 6 of these tumors and 5 tumors harbored a BAP1 mutation and/or lacked BAP1 protein expression by immunohistochemistry. Four of these tumors metastasized and for the fifth only short follow-up data are available. One of these metastatic tumors harbored an SF3B1 mutation. No EIF1AX mutations were detected in any of the tumors. To conclude, chromothripsis is a rare event in UM, occurring in 2.8% of samples and without significant association with mutations in any of the common UM driver genes.

Patrone S, Maric I, Rutigliani M, et al.
Prognostic value of chromosomal imbalances, gene mutations, and BAP1 expression in uveal melanoma.
Genes Chromosomes Cancer. 2018; 57(8):387-400 [PubMed] Related Publications
Uveal melanoma (UM) exhibits recurring chromosomal abnormalities and gene driver mutations, which are related to tumor evolution/progression. Almost half of the patients with UM develop distant metastases, predominantly to the liver, and so far there are no effective adjuvant therapies. An accurate UM genetic profile could assess the individual patient's metastatic risk, and provide the basis to determine an individualized targeted therapeutic strategy for each UM patient. To investigate the presence of specific chromosomal and gene alterations, BAP1 protein expression, and their relationship with distant progression free survival (DPFS), we analyzed tumor samples from 63 UM patients (40 men and 23 women, with a median age of 64 years), who underwent eye enucleation by a single cancer ophthalmologist from December 2005 to June 2016. UM samples were screened for the presence of losses/gains in chromosomes 1p, 3, 6p, and 8q, and for mutations in GNAQ, GNA11, BAP1, SF3B1, and EIF1AX. BAP1 protein expression was detected by immunohistochemistry (IHC). Multivariate analysis showed that the presence of monosomy 3, 8q gain, and loss of BAP1 protein were significantly associated to DPFS, while BAP1 gene mutation was not, mainly due to the presence of metastatic UM cases with negative BAP1 IHC and no BAP1 mutation detected by Sanger sequencing. Loss of BAP1 protein expression and monosomy 3 represent the strongest predictors of metastases, and may have important implications for implementation of patient surveillance, properly designed clinical trials enrollment, and adjuvant therapy.

Moore AR, Ran L, Guan Y, et al.
GNA11 Q209L Mouse Model Reveals RasGRP3 as an Essential Signaling Node in Uveal Melanoma.
Cell Rep. 2018; 22(9):2455-2468 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Uveal melanoma (UM) is characterized by mutually exclusive activating mutations in GNAQ, GNA11, CYSLTR2, and PLCB4, four genes in a linear pathway to activation of PLCβ in almost all tumors and loss of BAP1 in the aggressive subset. We generated mice with melanocyte-specific expression of GNA11

Lee SH, Kim JE, Jang HS, et al.
Genetic Alterations among Korean Melanoma Patients Showing Tumor Heterogeneity: A Comparison between Primary Tumors and Corresponding Metastatic Lesions.
Cancer Res Treat. 2018; 50(4):1378-1387 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
PURPOSE: Melanoma is a highly heterogeneous neoplasm, composed of subpopulations of tumor cells with distinct molecular and biological phenotypes and genotypes. In this study, to determine the genetic heterogeneity between primary and metastatic melanoma in Korean melanoma patients, we evaluated several well-known genetic alterations of melanoma. In addition, to elucidate the clinical relevance of each genetic alteration and heterogeneity between primary and metastatic lesions, clinical features and patient outcome were collected.
Materials and Methods: In addition to clinical data, BRAF, NRAS, GNAQ/11 mutation and KIT amplification data was acquired from an archived primary Korean melanoma cohort (KMC) of 188 patients. Among these patients, 43 patients were included for investigation of tumor heterogeneity between primary melanoma and its corresponding metastatic lesions.
RESULTS: Overall incidence of genetic aberrations of the primary melanomas in KMC was 17.6% of BRAF V600, 12.6% of NRAS mutation, and 28.6% of KIT amplification. GNAQ/11 mutation was seen in 66.6% of the uveal melanoma patients. Patients with BRAF mutation were associated with advanced stage and correlated to poor prognosis (p < 0.01). Among 43 patients, 55.8% showed heterogeneity between primary and metastatic lesion. The frequency of BRAF mutation and KIT amplification significantly increased in the metastatic lesions compared to primary melanomas. CONCLUSION: Our data demonstrated heterogeneity between primary melanomas and corresponding metastatic lesions for BRAF, NRAS mutation and KIT amplification. However, GNAQ/11 mutation was genetically homogeneous between primary and metastatic melanoma lesions in uveal melanoma.

Chua V, Aplin AE
Novel therapeutic strategies and targets in advanced uveal melanoma.
Curr Opin Oncol. 2018; 30(2):134-141 [PubMed] Related Publications
PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Currently, there are no U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved or effective treatment options for advanced-stage uveal melanoma. In this article, we focus on therapeutic targets in pathways/mechanisms associated with common mutations in uveal melanoma. We review the challenges associated with targeting of these pathways and novel treatment strategies.
RECENT FINDINGS: Common mutations that promote uveal melanoma initiation and progression include alterations in G protein subunit alpha q/11 (GNAQ/GNA11) and breast cancer gene 1-associated protein 1 (BAP1). Mutant GNAQ/GNA11 induces constitutive activation of tumorigenic pathways such as extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 and yes-associated protein. Inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK) downstream of ERK1/2, however, was shown in trials to have limited clinical benefit. Recent reports suggested that combination therapies of MEK inhibition and modulators of mechanisms of drug resistance may improve tumor responses to MEK inhibitors. BAP1 has been shown to be involved in modulating chromatin dynamics and deubiquitination of proteins. Hence, epigenetic inhibitors are being investigated in BAP1 mutant uveal melanoma. However, other functions of BAP1, such as in DNA damage repair and cell cycle regulation, indicate additional targets for treatment of BAP1 mutant uveal melanoma. In addition, the frequent delayed development of uveal melanoma macrometastases is likely due to cellular dormancy mechanisms. Nuclear receptor subfamily 2, group F, member 1 and transforming growth factor beta 2 were among factors that have been shown in other cancers to induce dormant phenotypes.
SUMMARY: Findings from studies in uveal melanoma and in other cancers provide evidence for potential strategies that may be tested preclinically and clinically in advanced-stage uveal melanoma to improve treatment outcome and overall survival of patients.

Moon KR, Choi YD, Kim JM, et al.
Genetic Alterations in Primary Acral Melanoma and Acral Melanocytic Nevus in Korea: Common Mutated Genes Show Distinct Cytomorphological Features.
J Invest Dermatol. 2018; 138(4):933-945 [PubMed] Related Publications
Acral melanoma occurring on the palms, soles, and nails is the most common subtype of cutaneous melanoma in Asians. Genetic alterations in acral melanoma and acral melanocytic nevus are not well known. We performed next-generation sequencing and evaluated the correlations between genetic information and the clinicopathologic characteristics from 85 Korean patients with acral melanocytic neoplasms. Of the 64 patients with acral melanoma, most had lesions at the T2 stage or higher, and the heel was the most common anatomical site of melanoma (n = 34 [53.1%]). The five most common mutations were BRAF (22 [34.4%]), NRAS (14, [21.9%]), NF1 (11, [17.2%]), GNAQ (12, [17.2%]), and KIT (7, [10.9%]). In the 21 acral melanocytic nevi, those five gene mutations were also common. Copy number variations were also frequently detected in 75% of acral melanomas and 47.6% of acral melanocytic nevi, and amplification was more common than deletion in both lesions. BRAF mutation was associated with round epithelioid cells and NRAS and NF1 mutations with bizarre cells. NF1 and GNAQ mutations showed elongated and spindle cells with prominent dendrites in acral melanomas. KIT mutations were common in amelanotic acral melanoma. This study suggests that common mutated genes are associated with distinct cytomorphological features in acral melanocytic lesions.

Mori T, Sukeda A, Sekine S, et al.
SOX10 Expression as Well as BRAF and GNAQ/11 Mutations Distinguish Pigmented Ciliary Epithelium Neoplasms From Uveal Melanomas.
Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2017; 58(12):5445-5451 [PubMed] Related Publications
Purpose: Adenocarcinomas or adenomas derived from pigmented ciliary epithelium (APCE) are exceptionally rare ocular tumors. These tumors have pigmented and epithelioid features, and some APCEs are negative for keratin markers and positive for melanocytic markers. It is especially difficult to distinguish APCEs from uveal melanoma (UM). Accordingly, we examined protein expression and genetic mutations associated with APCE to facilitate diagnosis.
Methods: Five APCE and 11 UM samples were obtained from patients during surgical resection at our institute. APCE and UM ocular structures were compared comprehensively. Protein expression and genetic alterations involved in malignant melanoma were evaluated.
Results: SOX10 was expressed diffusely in all 11 UMs and in surrounding uveal or choroidal melanocytes, but not in the APCEs or nontumorous pigmented epithelia. Additionally, the expression patterns of cytokeratins and melanocytic markers differed between UMs and APCEs. We identified BRAF V600E mutations in four of five APCE samples, but not in the 11 UM samples. Moreover, GNAQ or GNA11 mutations were found in 10 of the 11 UM samples, but not in APCE samples. NRAS mutations were not observed in either tumor group examined.
Conclusions: APCE is a separate entity distinguished from UM by the absence of SOX10 expression and presence of the BRAF V600E mutation. These results have implications for diagnosis, providing a means to distinguish between UM and APCE.

Zilberg C, Lee MW, Yu B, et al.
Analysis of clinically relevant somatic mutations in high-risk head and neck cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma.
Mod Pathol. 2018; 31(2):275-287 [PubMed] Related Publications
Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma is the second most prevalent malignancy, most frequently occurring in the head and neck (head and neck cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma). Treatment of locally advanced or metastatic disease is associated with functional morbidity and disfigurement. Underlying genetic mechanisms are poorly understood. Targeted sequencing of 48 clinically relevant genes was performed on DNA extracted from formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded high-risk primary head and neck cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas that remained non-metastatic at minimum follow-up of 24 months. Associations of somatic mutations with clinicopathologic characteristics were evaluated and compared with those described in the literature for metastatic disease. Alterations in 44 cancer-associated genes were identified. TP53 was mutated in 100% of cases; APC, ATM, ERBB4, GNAQ, KIT, RB1 and ABL1 were altered in 60% of cases. FGFR2 mutations (40%) were exclusively seen in patients with perineural invasion. MLH1 mutations were exclusively seen in the two younger patients (<45 years). Lower incidences of NOTCH1 mutations were observed compared with that described in metastatic head and neck cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma in the literature. Somatic mutations susceptible to EGFR inhibitors, and other small molecular targeted therapeutics were seen in 60% of cases. This study provides insights into somatic mutations in non-metastatic, high-risk head and neck cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma and identifies potential therapeutic targets. Alterations in FGFR2 and NOTCH1 may have roles in local and distant disease progression.

Psinakis F, Katseli A, Koutsandrea C, et al.
Uveal Melanoma:
Anticancer Res. 2017; 37(10):5719-5726 [PubMed] Related Publications
BACKGROUND/AIM: Uveal melanoma is the most common primary adult intraocular malignancy. It is known to have a strong metastatic potential, fatal for the vast majority of patients. In recent years, meticulous cytogenetic and molecular profiling has led to precise prognostication, that unfortunately is not matched by advancements in adjuvant therapies. G Protein subunits alpha Q (GNAQ) and alpha 11 (GNA11) are two of the major driver genes that contribute to the development of uveal melanoma. Understanding their prognostic significance can allow tailored management and facilitate their use in the on-going quest of targeted uveal melanoma therapies.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded specimens were obtained from 47 patients of Greek origin, with uveal melanoma. GNAQ and GNA11 genes were screened for mutations in exons 4 and 5, by polymerase chain reaction and Sanger sequencing.
RESULTS: The overall mutation frequency of GNAQ/GNA11 genes was 42.4%. A novel mutation c.625_626delinsGC was identified in GNA11. No correlation was observed between the mutation status and metastasis occurrence or overall survival time of patients.
CONCLUSION: Mutations in GNAQ and GNA11 genes in this Greek population present frequencies that qualify them as potential targets for customized therapy.

Bailey FP, Clarke K, Kalirai H, et al.
Kinome-wide transcriptional profiling of uveal melanoma reveals new vulnerabilities to targeted therapeutics.
Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2018; 31(2):253-266 [PubMed] Related Publications
Metastatic uveal melanoma (UM) is invariably fatal, usually within a year of diagnosis. There are currently no effective therapies, and clinical studies employing kinase inhibitors have so far demonstrated limited success. This is despite common activating mutations in GNAQ/11 genes, which trigger signalling pathways that might predispose tumours to a variety of targeted drugs. In this study, we have profiled kinome expression network dynamics in various human ocular melanomas. We uncovered a shared transcriptional profile in human primary UM samples and across a variety of experimental cell-based models. The poor overall response of UM cells to FDA-approved kinase inhibitors contrasted with much higher sensitivity to the bromodomain inhibitor JQ1, a broad transcriptional repressor. Mechanistically, we identified a repressed FOXM1-dependent kinase subnetwork in JQ1-exposed cells that contained multiple cell cycle-regulated protein kinases. Consistently, we demonstrated vulnerability of UM cells to inhibitors of mitotic protein kinases within this network, including the investigational PLK1 inhibitor BI6727. We conclude that analysis of kinome-wide signalling network dynamics has the potential to reveal actionable drug targets and inhibitors of potential therapeutic benefit for UM patients.

Robertson AG, Shih J, Yau C, et al.
Integrative Analysis Identifies Four Molecular and Clinical Subsets in Uveal Melanoma.
Cancer Cell. 2017; 32(2):204-220.e15 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Comprehensive multiplatform analysis of 80 uveal melanomas (UM) identifies four molecularly distinct, clinically relevant subtypes: two associated with poor-prognosis monosomy 3 (M3) and two with better-prognosis disomy 3 (D3). We show that BAP1 loss follows M3 occurrence and correlates with a global DNA methylation state that is distinct from D3-UM. Poor-prognosis M3-UM divide into subsets with divergent genomic aberrations, transcriptional features, and clinical outcomes. We report change-of-function SRSF2 mutations. Within D3-UM, EIF1AX- and SRSF2/SF3B1-mutant tumors have distinct somatic copy number alterations and DNA methylation profiles, providing insight into the biology of these low- versus intermediate-risk clinical mutation subtypes.

Vader MJC, Madigan MC, Versluis M, et al.
GNAQ and GNA11 mutations and downstream YAP activation in choroidal nevi.
Br J Cancer. 2017; 117(6):884-887 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
BACKGROUND: Mutations in GNAQ/11 genes are considered an early event in the development of uveal melanoma that may derive from a pre-existing nevus. The Hippo pathway, by way of YAP activation, rather than MAP kinase, has a role in the oncogenic capacity of GNAQ/11 mutations.
METHODS: We investigated 16 nevi from 13 human eyes for driver GNAQ/11 mutations using droplet digital PCR and determined whether nevi are clonal by quantifying mutant nevus cell fractions. Immunohistochemistry was performed on 15 nevi to analyse YAP activation.
RESULTS: For 15 out of 16 nevi, a GNAQ/11 mutation was detected in the nevus cells albeit at a low frequency with a median of 13%. Nuclear YAP, a transcriptional co-activator in the Hippo tumour-suppressor pathway, was detected in 14/15 nevi.
CONCLUSIONS: Our analysis suggests that a mutation in GNAQ/11 occurs in a subset of choroidal nevus cells. We hypothesise that GNAQ/11 mutant-driven extracellular mitogenic signalling involving YAP activation leads to accumulation of wild-type nevus cells.

Cohen JN, Joseph NM, North JP, et al.
Genomic Analysis of Pigmented Epithelioid Melanocytomas Reveals Recurrent Alterations in PRKAR1A, and PRKCA Genes.
Am J Surg Pathol. 2017; 41(10):1333-1346 [PubMed] Related Publications
Pigmented epithelioid melanocytoma (PEM) is a rare cutaneous melanocytic tumor first described as epithelioid blue nevus in patients with the Carney Complex (CC). PEM was among the first established examples of an intermediate class of melanocytic tumors, including atypical Spitz tumors, with frequent metastasis to lymph nodes but only rare extranodal spread. Sporadic and CC-associated PEM are essentially histologically indistinguishable. A subset of PEM shows loss of cytoplasmic expression of the protein kinase A regulatory subunit alpha (PRKAR1A), a tumor suppressor gene mutated in 70% of families with CC. However, molecular studies of such tumors have been limited. Therefore, we used next-generation sequencing to assess 480 cancer-related genes and performed PrkaR1α immunohistochemistry on 13 cases morphologically consistent with PEM. Six cases demonstrated loss of PrkaR1α expression by immunohistochemistry. Three cases were "combined" PEM arising in association with a common nevus. These lesions harbored PRKAR1A genetic alterations in addition to BRAF mutations. Three "pure" PEM, not associated with a common nevus, showed no evidence of PRKAR1A genetic alterations despite loss of PrkaR1α expression. Two of these PEM demonstrated MAP2K1 in frame deletions. PrkaR1α protein expression was preserved in 7 cases. Two of these lesions revealed fusions of the gene encoding the protein kinase C alpha isoform (PRKCA) to 2 distinct partners (ATP2B4-PRKCA and RNF13-PRKCA). Two lesions may represent misdiagnosed "blue nevus with epithelioid features" as they demonstrated GNAQ hotspot mutations. A conceivable explanation, but one we do not favor is that rare PEM are caused by GNAQ mutations. No genetic aberrations were detected in 3 lesions. None of our 13 cases demonstrated TERT alterations or significant chromosomal copy number changes. These results further validate the concept of PEM as a distinctive intermediate/borderline melanocytic tumor, and also illustrate its molecular heterogeneity.

Martins L, Giovani PA, Rebouças PD, et al.
Computational analysis for GNAQ mutations: New insights on the molecular etiology of Sturge-Weber syndrome.
J Mol Graph Model. 2017; 76:429-440 [PubMed] Related Publications
Somatic activating mutations in the GNAQ have been recently associated with several congenital genetic disorders and tumors; however, the molecular mechanism/etiology that leads to GNAQ somatic mosaic mutation are unknown. Here, we reported a case of Sturge-Weber Syndrome (SWS) manifesting cutaneous vascular malformations (hemifacial Port-wine stain), cerebral and ocular vascular abnormalities (including epilepsy and glaucoma) and harboring a c.548G>A (p.R183Q) somatic mosaic mutation in GNAQ. Computational modeling studies were performed to assistant with the comprehension of the functional impact of p.R183Q and p.Q209L mutations in GNAQ, which encodes a G protein subunit alpha q (Gαq). The p.R183Q mutation was predicted to abolish hydrogen bonds between R183 residue and GDP molecule, destabilizing the inactive GDP-bound conformation of the Gαq mutants. Furthermore, replacement of R183 by Q183 residue was predicted to promote conformation changes in protein surface features affecting the switch I region, a key region that undergoes conformational changes triggered by receptor binding during signal transduction. In addition, replacement of Q209 by L209 residue was predicted to affect the molecular interaction between Gαq and Gβ subunit, impairing formation of the inactive heterotrimeric complex. These findings, in association with PPI network analysis, indicate that p.R183Q and p.Q209L mutations result in the over-activation of different downstream effectors, which in turn will determine the distinct cell responses and phenotype. These findings bring new insights on molecular etiology of vascular malformations associated to SWS and on different mechanisms underlying hyperactivation of downstream pathways to Gαq.

Scholz SL, Möller I, Reis H, et al.
Frequent GNAQ, GNA11, and EIF1AX Mutations in Iris Melanoma.
Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2017; 58(9):3464-3470 [PubMed] Related Publications
Purpose: The most common malignant intraocular tumors with a high mortality in adults are uveal melanomas. Uveal melanomas arise most frequently in the choroid or ciliary body (97%) and rarely in the iris (3%). Whereas conjunctival and posterior uveal (ciliary body and choroidal) melanomas have been studied in more detail genetically, little data exist regarding iris melanomas.
Methods: In our study, we genetically analyzed 19 iris melanomas, 8 ciliary body melanomas, 3 ring melanomas, and 4 iris nevi. A targeted next-generation sequencing approach was applied, covering the mutational hotspot regions of nine genes known to be mutated in conjunctival and uveal melanoma (BRAF, NRAS, KIT, GNAQ, GNA11, CYSLTR2, SF3B1, EIF1AX, and BAP1).
Results: Activating GNAQ or GNA11 hotspot mutations were detected in a mutually exclusive fashion in 84% (16/19) of iris melanomas. EIF1AX gene mutations also were frequent, detected in 42% (8/19) of iris melanomas. In 4 iris nevi, one GNAQ mutation was identified. GNAQ, GNA11, EIF1AX, and BAP1 mutations were identified at varying frequencies in ciliary body and ring melanomas.
Conclusions: In this most comprehensive genetic analysis of iris melanomas published to date, we find iris melanomas to be related genetically to choroidal and ciliary body melanomas, frequently harboring GNAQ, GNA11, and EIF1AX mutations. Future studies will need to assess if screening mutation profiles in iris melanomas may be of diagnostic or prognostic value.

Staby KM, Gravdal K, Mørk SJ, et al.
Prognostic impact of chromosomal aberrations and GNAQ, GNA11 and BAP1 mutations in uveal melanoma.
Acta Ophthalmol. 2018; 96(1):31-38 [PubMed] Related Publications
PURPOSE: To evaluate clinico-pathological and molecular prognostic factors in a well-defined series of posterior uveal melanoma (UM) with focus on chromosomal aberrations and mutations in the GNAQ, GNA11 and BRCA1-associated protein 1 (BAP1) genes.
METHODS: Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue samples were obtained from 50 consecutive eyes enucleated for UM between 1993 and 2005. The material was tested for loss of chromosome 3 and gain of chromosome 8q gene signatures by selective molecular gene markers using multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA), and for DNA mutations in the GNAQ, GNA11 and BAP1 genes.
RESULTS: After a mean follow-up of 83 months (range, 8-205 months), 21 patients had died of metastatic UM and 16 patients of other causes. Tumour diameter, ciliary body involvement, mixed/epithelioid cell types, mitotic index, Ki-67 proliferation index, loss of chromosome 3 and gain of chromosome 8q showed statistically significant associations with metastatic disease. There were no significant differences in the prevalence of GNAQ and GNA11 mutations between patients with or without metastatic disease. Mutational analysis of the BAP1 gene was performed in 32 primary UM and in five UM liver metastases. Nine different BAP1 missense mutations were identified. BAP1 mutations were not more common in metastasizing than in nonmetastasizing UM.
CONCLUSION: The molecular gene markers showing loss of chromosome 3 and gain of 8q gene signatures were associated with an increased risk of metastatic disease. BRCA1-associated protein 1 (BAP1) gene mutation status had no prognostic significance. The frequency and spectrum of BAP1 mutations in UM may be more dependent on ethnicity and demographic variables than hitherto considered.

Griewank KG, Müller H, Jackett LA, et al.
SF3B1 and BAP1 mutations in blue nevus-like melanoma.
Mod Pathol. 2017; 30(7):928-939 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Blue nevi are melanocytic tumors originating in the cutaneous dermis. Malignant tumors may arise in association with or resembling blue nevi, so called 'blue nevus-like melanoma', which can metastasize and result in patient death. Identifying which tumors will behave in a clinically aggressive manner can be challenging. Identifying genetic alterations in such tumors may assist in their diagnosis and prognostication. Blue nevi are known to be genetically related to uveal melanomas (eg, both harboring GNAQ and GNA11 mutations). In this study, we analyzed a large cohort (n=301) of various morphologic variants of blue nevi and related tumors including tumors diagnosed as atypical blue nevi (n=21), and blue nevus-like melanoma (n=12), screening for all gene mutations known to occur in uveal melanoma. Similar to published reports, we found the majority of blue nevi harbored activating mutations in GNAQ (53%) or GNA11 (15%). In addition, rare CYSLTR2 (1%) and PLCB4 (1%) mutations were identified. EIF1AX, SF3B1, and BAP1 mutations were also detected, with BAP1 and SF3B1 R625 mutations being present only in clearly malignant tumors (17% (n=2) and 25% (n=3) of blue nevus-like melanoma, respectively). In sequencing data from a larger cohort of cutaneous melanomas, this genetic profile was also identified in tumors not originally diagnosed as blue nevus-like melanoma. Our findings suggest that the genetic profile of coexistent GNAQ or GNA11 mutations with BAP1 or SF3B1 mutations can aid the histopathological diagnosis of blue nevus-like melanoma and distinguish blue nevus-like melanoma from conventional epidermal-derived melanomas. Future studies will need to further elucidate the prognostic implications and appropriate clinical management for patients with tumors harboring these mutation profiles.

Seitz AK, Christensen LL, Christensen E, et al.
Profiling of long non-coding RNAs identifies LINC00958 and LINC01296 as candidate oncogenes in bladder cancer.
Sci Rep. 2017; 7(1):395 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Aberrant expression of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) has been regarded as a critical component in bladder cancer (BC) and lncRNAs have been associated with BC development and progression although their overall expression and functional significance is still unclear. The aim of our study was to identify novel lncRNAs with a functional role in BC carcinogenesis. RNA-sequencing was used to identify aberrantly expressed lncRNAs in 8 normal and 72 BC samples. We identified 89 lncRNAs that were significantly dys-regulated in BC. Five lncRNAs; LINC00958, LINC01296, LINC00355, LNC-CMC1-1 and LNC-ALX1-2 were selected for further analyses. Silencing of LINC00958 or LINC01296 in vitro reduced both cell viability and migration. Knock-down of LINC00958 also affected invasion and resistance to anoikis. These cellular effects could be linked to direct/indirect regulation of protein coding mRNAs involved in cell death/survival, proliferation and cellular movement. Finally, we showed that LINC00958 binds proteins involved in regulation and initiation of translation and in post-transcriptional modification of RNA, including Metadherin, which has previously been associated with BC. Our analyses identified novel lncRNAs in BC that likely act as oncogenic drivers contributing to an aggressive cancerous phenotype likely through interaction with proteins involved in initiation of translation and/or post-transcriptional modification of RNA.

Sahm F, Reuss DE, Giannini C
WHO 2016 classification: changes and advancements in the diagnosis of miscellaneous primary CNS tumours.
Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 2018; 44(2):163-171 [PubMed] Related Publications
This short review highlights significant changes and recent findings incorporated to varying extent in the WHO 2016 definition of a variety of tumours, including peripheral nerve sheath tumours, meningiomas, mesenchymal nonmeningothelial tumours, melanocytic tumours, lymphomas and histiocytic tumours, germ cell tumours and non-neuroendocrine pituitary tumours. Most notable classification changes include: adding 'hybrid nerve sheath tumours' to the spectrum of benign nerve sheath tumours; an updated definition of atypical meningioma (WHO grade II), including cases with brain invasion; recognizing dural solitary fibrous tumour (SFT) and haemangiopericytoma (HPC) as a single tumour entity characterized by NAB2 and STAT6 gene fusions for which the term SFT/HPC was chosen; recognizing that pituitary granular cell tumour, spindle cell oncocytoma, and pituicytoma all share nuclear expression of TTF-1, possibly representing a spectrum of a single nosological entity derived from posterior pituitary glial cells. The most significant diagnostic markers which have emerged include: inactivation of NF1, CDKN2A, and PRC2 components, SUZ12 and EED in MPNST, leading to neurofibromin and H3K27me3 expression loss; GNAQ and GNA11 mutations in CNS primary melanocytic tumours; BRAFV600E mutation in histiocytic tumours (Langerhans cell histiocytosis and Erdheim-Chester disease) and papillary craniopharyngioma, which provides both a diagnostic marker in the appropriate pathological setting and a therapeutic target. The WHO 2016 Classification has balanced cutting-edge knowledge on the molecular characteristics of the miscellaneous CNS tumours reviewed here with a practical approach for their daily diagnostic work-up. Much more progress can be expected in the classification of these neoplasms in the near future.

Reichstein D
New concepts in the molecular understanding of uveal melanoma.
Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2017; 28(3):219-227 [PubMed] Related Publications
PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Uveal melanoma is the most common primary intraocular malignancy, and its metastases are deadly. Significant work has been done to elucidate the molecular framework that causes uveal melanoma development and metastasis. This review is intended to highlight the most recent breakthroughs in the molecular understanding of uveal melanoma.
RECENT FINDINGS: Monosomy of chromosome 3 and class 2 gene-expression profile are well-known indicators of melanoma metastasis. However, some patients with disomy 3 and class 1 gene expression profiling (GEP) still develop metastasis. Disomy 3 tumors may be further classified based upon the presence of an SF3B1 mutation. The role of SF3B1 gene is unclear at this time but may be related to the development of late metastases among disomy 3 uveal melanoma. Class 1 GEP tumors have recently been subdivided into class 1a and class 1b, with class 1b tumors carrying a slightly higher risk of metastasis. Among patients with either class 1 or class 2 GEP, the expression of preferentially expressed antigen in melanoma (PRAME) is an independent risk factor for the development of metastasis. Mutation of GNAQ is the most commonly observed mutation in uveal melanoma, regardless of chromosome 3 status or GEP class. Inhibitors or GNAQ may be targets for therapeutic intervention in uveal melanoma. MicroRNA molecules are small noncoding RNA molecules that have been recently demonstrated to function in RNA silencing and posttranscriptional regulation of gene expression. These molecules may play a role in the development of uveal melanoma metastasis.
SUMMARY: New findings such as the presence or absence of PRAME, mutations in the SF3B1 gene and microRNA dysregulation have added new layers to our understanding of uveal melanoma. These new concepts will enhance our ability to prognosticate tumor metastasis and may provide targets for therapeutic intervention.

Amaro A, Gangemi R, Piaggio F, et al.
The biology of uveal melanoma.
Cancer Metastasis Rev. 2017; 36(1):109-140 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
Uveal melanoma (UM), a rare cancer of the eye, is distinct from cutaneous melanoma by its etiology, the mutation frequency and profile, and its clinical behavior including resistance to targeted therapy and immune checkpoint blockers. Primary disease is efficiently controlled by surgery or radiation therapy, but about half of UMs develop distant metastasis mostly to the liver. Survival of patients with metastasis is below 1 year and has not improved in decades. Recent years have brought a deep understanding of UM biology characterized by initiating mutations in the G proteins GNAQ and GNA11. Cytogenetic alterations, in particular monosomy of chromosome 3 and amplification of the long arm of chromosome 8, and mutation of the BRCA1-associated protein 1, BAP1, a tumor suppressor gene, or the splicing factor SF3B1 determine UM metastasis. Cytogenetic and molecular profiling allow for a very precise prognostication that is still not matched by efficacious adjuvant therapies. G protein signaling has been shown to activate the YAP/TAZ pathway independent of HIPPO, and conventional signaling via the mitogen-activated kinase pathway probably also contributes to UM development and progression. Several lines of evidence indicate that inflammation and macrophages play a pro-tumor role in UM and in its hepatic metastases. UM cells benefit from the immune privilege in the eye and may adopt several mechanisms involved in this privilege for tumor escape that act even after leaving the niche. Here, we review the current knowledge of the biology of UM and discuss recent approaches to UM treatment.

Reiman A, Kikuchi H, Scocchia D, et al.
Validation of an NGS mutation detection panel for melanoma.
BMC Cancer. 2017; 17(1):150 [PubMed] Free Access to Full Article Related Publications
BACKGROUND: Knowledge of the genotype of melanoma is important to guide patient management. Identification of mutations in BRAF and c-KIT lead directly to targeted treatment, but it is also helpful to know if there are driver oncogene mutations in NRAS, GNAQ or GNA11 as these patients may benefit from alternative strategies such as immunotherapy.
METHODS: While polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods are often used to detect BRAF mutations, next generation sequencing (NGS) is able to determine all of the necessary information on several genes at once, with potential advantages in turnaround time. We describe here an Ampliseq hotspot panel for melanoma for use with the IonTorrent Personal Genome Machine (PGM) which covers the mutations currently of most clinical interest.
RESULTS: We have validated this in 151 cases of skin and uveal melanoma from our files, and correlated the data with PCR based assessment of BRAF status. There was excellent agreement, with few discrepancies, though NGS does have greater coverage and picks up some mutations that would be missed by PCR. However, these are often rare and of unknown significance for treatment.
CONCLUSIONS: PCR methods are rapid, less time-consuming and less expensive than NGS, and could be used as triage for patients requiring more extensive diagnostic workup. The NGS panel described here is suitable for clinical use with formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) samples.

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