Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common endocrine disorder in females, and is associated with altered metabolic processes in particular insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus. PCOS shares with type-2 diabetes (T2D) a number of features, including beta cell dysfunction, impaired glucose tolerance and dyslipidaemia. Recently, genomewide association studies (GWAS) have reported a number of genes with reproducible associations and susceptibilities to T2D. To address this, we examined the association between the T2D GWAS candidate genes (

To examine 143 diabetes risk single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), identified from genome-wide association studies, in association with breast cancer (BC) incidence and subsequent mortality. A population-based sample of Caucasian women with first primary invasive BC (n = 817) and controls (n = 1021) were interviewed to assess diabetes status. Using the National Death Index, women with BC were followed for >18 years during which 340 deaths occurred (139 BC deaths). Genotyping was done using DNA extracted from blood samples. We used unconditional logistic regression to estimate age-adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for BC incidence, and Cox regression to estimate age-adjusted hazard ratios and CIs for all-cause and BC-specific mortality. Twelve SNPs were associated with BC risk in additive genotype models, at α = 0.05. The top three significant SNPs included SLC30A8-rs4876369 (P = 0.0034), HHEX-rs11187146 (P = 0.0086), and CDKN2A/CDKN2B-rs1333049 (P = 0.0094). Diabetes status modified the associations between rs4876369 and rs2241745 and BC incidence, on the multiplicative interaction scale. Six SNPs were associated with all-cause (CDKAL1-rs981042, P = 0.0032; HHEX-rs1111875, P = 0.0361; and INSR-rs919275, P = 0.0488) or BC-specific (CDKN2A/CDKN2B-rs3218020, P = 0.0225; CDKAL1-rs981042, P = 0.0246; and TCF2/HNF1B-rs3094508, P = 0.0344) mortality in additive genotype models, at α = 0.05. Genetic polymorphisms that increase the risk of developing diabetes may also increase the risk of developing and dying from BC.

Homeobox genes encode transcription factors which regulate basic processes in development and cell differentiation. Several members of the NKL subclass are deregulated in T-cell progenitors and support leukemogenesis. We have recently described particular expression patterns of nine NKL homeobox genes in early hematopoiesis and T-cell development. Here, we screened NKL homeobox gene activities in normal B-cell development and extended the NKL-code to include this lymphoid lineage. Analysis of public expression profiling datasets revealed that HHEX and NKX6-3 were the only members differentially active in naïve B-cells, germinal center B-cells, plasma cells and memory B-cells. Subsequent examination of different types of B-cell malignancies showed both aberrant overexpression of NKL-code members and ectopic activation of subclass members physiologically silent in lymphopoiesis including BARX2, DLX1, EMX2, NKX2-1, NKX2-2 and NKX3-2. Based on these findings we performed detailed studies of the B-cell specific NKL homeobox gene NKX6-3 which showed enhanced activity in patient subsets of follicular lymphoma, mantle cell lymphoma and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), and in three DLBCL cell lines to serve as in vitro models. While excluding genomic and chromosomal rearrangements at the locus of NKX6-3 (8p11) promoter studies demonstrated that B-cell factors MYB and PAX5 activated NKX6-3 transcription. Furthermore, aberrant BMP7/SMAD1-signalling and deregulated expression of chromatin complex components AUTS2 and PCGF5 promoted NKX6-3 activation. Finally, NKL homeobox genes HHEX, HLX, MSX1 and NKX6-3 were expressed in B-cell progenitors and generated a regulatory gene network in cell lines which we propose may provide physiological support for NKL-code formation in early B-cell development. Together, we identified an NKL-code in B-cell development whose violation may deregulate differentiation and promote malignant transformation.

T cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) is a malignant cancer with poor prognosis. The transcriptional co-factor LIM domain only 2 (LMO2) and its target gene HHEX are essential for self-renewal of T cell precursors and T-ALL etiology. LMO2 directly associates with LDB1 in a large DNA-containing nuclear complex and controls the transcription of T-ALL-related genes. Recently, we reported that overexpression of the LIM-homeodomain transcription factor, Lhx2, results in liberation of the Lmo2 protein from the Lmo2-Ldb1 complex, followed by ubiquitin proteasome mediated degradation. Here, we found that proliferation of five human T-ALL-derived cell lines, including CCRF-CEM, was significantly suppressed by retroviral overexpression of Lhx2. The majority of Lhx2-transduced CCRF-CEM cells arrested in G

BACKGROUND: The hematopoietically expressed homeobox (HHEX) is widely expressed in hematopoietic stem cells and is an essential transcription factor in embryonic development; however its role in hematopoiesis and leukemogenesis is poorly understood. We are thus exploring the association of HHEX and acute myeloid leukemia (AML).
METHODS: The study included 56 AML patients and 12 normal bone marrows (NBMs). Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (Q-PCR) was used to assess HHEX expression. The functional consequences of this gene were explored in the Kasumi-1 cell-line following dampened expression of HHEX. This was done by transfecting small interfering RNA (siRNA).
RESULTS: Expression levels of HHEX in AML were similar to that found in controls (0.094±0.103 vs. 0.078±0.112;
CONCLUSIONS: HHEX is expressed in multiple types of AML, with the highest levels seen in t(8;21) AML. HHEX was essential for Kasumi-1 cell proliferation and may represent a potential therapeutic target enabling against AML.

MicroRNA-98 (miR-98) is downregulated in many tumors, and is closely related to tumor progression. In addition, it shows anticarcinogenic functions in various tumor. However, few study show that the biological function and regulatory mechanisms of miR-98 in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) progression. The identification and its target genes which regulate by dysregulated miRNAs may strengthen our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of NPC. In this study, we observe that miR-98 is not only significantly reduced in NPC tissues, but also decreased markedly in NPC cell lines. Moreover, silencing miR-98 expression studies not only show miR-98 induced cell proliferation, migration and invasion in vitro, but also it promoted xenograft tumor growth in vivo in NPC. Furthermore, western blot assay was used to detected the level of STAT3 protein and we demonstrate that miR-98 regulate cells poliferation, migration and invasion through directly modulating functional target STAT3 by directly binding its 3'-UTR. These findings illustrate miR-98 as a anticarcinogenic functions through targeting STAT3, the miR-98/STAT3 pathway gives new clues for understanding NPC carcinogenesis and provides novel therapeutic targetsfor NPC.

G9a is an epigenetic regulator that methylates H3K9, generally causing repression of gene expression, and participates in diverse cellular functions. G9a is genetically deregulated in a variety of tumor types and can silence tumor suppressor genes and, therefore, is important for carcinogenesis. Although hypoxia is recognized to be an adverse factor in tumor growth and metastasis, the role of G9a in regulating gene expression in hypoxia has not been described extensively. Here, we show that G9a protein stability is increased in hypoxia via reduced proline hydroxylation and, hence, inefficient degradation by the proteasome. This inefficiency leads to an increase in H3K9me2 at its target promoters. Blocking the methyltransferase activity of G9a inhibited cellular proliferation and migration in vitro and tumor growth in vivo. Furthermore, an increased level of G9a is a crucial factor in mediating the hypoxic response by down-regulating the expression of specific genes, including

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is induced by the cooperative action of deregulated genes that perturb self-renewal, proliferation, and differentiation. Internal tandem duplications (ITDs) in the FLT3 receptor tyrosine kinase are common mutations in AML, confer poor prognosis, and stimulate myeloproliferation. AML patient samples with FLT3-ITD express high levels of RUNX1, a transcription factor with known tumor-suppressor function. In this study, to understand this paradox, we investigated the impact of RUNX1 and FLT3-ITD coexpression. FLT3-ITD directly impacts on RUNX1 activity, whereby up-regulated and phosphorylated RUNX1 cooperates with FLT3-ITD to induce AML. Inactivating RUNX1 in tumors releases the differentiation block and down-regulates genes controlling ribosome biogenesis. We identified

T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) cells represent developmentally arrested T-cell progenitors, subsets of which aberrantly express homeobox genes of the NKL subclass, including TLX1, TLX3, NKX2-1, NKX2-5, NKX3-1 and MSX1. Here, we analyzed the transcriptional landscape of all 48 members of the NKL homeobox gene subclass in CD34+ hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) and during lymphopoiesis, identifying activities of nine particular genes. Four of these were expressed in HSPCs (HHEX, HLX1, NKX2-3 and NKX3-1) and three in common lymphoid progenitors (HHEX, HLX1 and MSX1). Interestingly, our data indicated downregulation of NKL homeobox gene transcripts in late progenitors and mature T-cells, a phenomenon which might explain the oncogenic impact of this group of genes in T-ALL. Using MSX1-expressing T-ALL cell lines as models, we showed that HHEX activates while HLX1, NKX2-3 and NKX3-1 repress MSX1 transcription, demonstrating the mutual regulation and differential activities of these homeobox genes. Analysis of a public T-ALL expression profiling data set comprising 117 patient samples identified 20 aberrantly activated members of the NKL subclass, extending the number of known NKL homeobox oncogene candidates. While 7/20 genes were also active during hematopoiesis, the remaining 13 showed ectopic expression. Finally, comparative analyses of T-ALL patient and cell line profiling data of NKL-positive and NKL-negative samples indicated absence of shared target genes but instead highlighted deregulation of apoptosis as common oncogenic effect. Taken together, we present a comprehensive survey of NKL homeobox genes in early hematopoiesis, T-cell development and T-ALL, showing that these genes generate an NKL-code for the diverse stages of lymphoid development which might be fundamental for regular differentiation.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the most common reproductive endocrine disorder of premenopausal women. Given the phenotypic overlap between PCOS and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), this study was carried out to investigate whether genes implicated in T2DM were also involved in the susceptibility to PCOS among women from southern India.
METHODS: A total of 248 women with PCOS and 210 healthy women as controls were genotyped for a panel of 15 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from the nine T2DM genes, such as TCF7L2, IGF2BP2, SLC30A8, HHEX, CDKAL1, CDKN2A, IRS1, CAPN10 and PPARG, on Sequenom MassARRAY platform.
RESULTS: None of the 15 SNPs were found to be significantly associated with PCOS after Bonferroni correction for multiple testing, either in the univariate or multivariate context. The cumulative effect of risk alleles observed with reference to T2DM was also not seen with reference to PCOS.
INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSIONS: The nine T2DM genes considered in this exploratory study might not be the primary susceptibility factors for PCOS among Indian women. Our results supplement the lack of evidence of the association of T2DM genes with PCOS among the Chinese and Caucasians hinting at the possible universality of this pattern. Specifically designed comprehensive studies that include women with T2DM and PCOS are required to explore the precise role of the diabetes genes.

Mast cells (MCs) are tissue-resident immune cells that participate in a variety of allergic and inflammatory conditions, including periodontal disease, through the release of cytokines, chemokines and proteolytic enzymes. Porhyromonas gingivalis (P. g) is widely recognized as a major pathogen in the development and progression of periodontitis. Here we compared the differential effects of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) from P. g and E. coli on the expression and production of tumor necrosis factor (TNF), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP-1) by human MCs. Human LAD2 MCs were stimulated with LPS from either P. g or E. coli (1-1000 ng/ml). MCs were also stimulated with SP (2μM) serving as the positive control or media alone as the negative control. After 24 h, the cells and supernatant fluids were collected and analyzed for β-Hexosaminidase (β-hex) spectrophotometrically, TNF, VEGF and MCP-1 release by ELISA and real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for mediator gene expression, respectively. To assess the functional role of tolllike receptors (TRL) in mediator release, MCs were pre-incubated with either anti-TLR2 or anti- TLR4 (2 μg/ml) polyclonal antibody for 1 h before stimulation with LPS. When MCs were stimulated with SP (2 μM), there was a statistically significant β-hex release as well as release of TNF, VEGF and MCP-1. Stimulation of MCs with either type of LPS did not induce degranulation based on the lack of β-hex release. However, both types of LPS stimulated expression and release of TNF, VEGF and MCP-1. Although, P. g LPS induced significant release of TNF, VEGF and MCP-1, the effect was not concentration-dependent. There was no statistically significant difference between the effects of P. g and E. coli LPS. P. g LPS stimulated TNF through TLR-2 while E. coli utilized TRL-4 instead. In contrast, VEGF release by P. g LPS required both TRL-2 and TRL-4 while E. coli LPS required TLR-4. Release of MCP-1 was independent of TLR-2 or TLR-4. P. g LPS activates human MCs to generate and release TNF, VEGF and MCP-1 through different TLRs than E. coli LPS. MCs may, therefore, be involved in the inflammatory processes responsible for periodontal disease.

Increasing amounts of evidence has demonstrated that T2DM (Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus) patients have increased susceptibility to CRC (colorectal cancer). As HHEX is a recognized susceptibility gene in T2DM, this work was focused on two SNPs in HHEX, rs1111875 and rs7923837, to study their association with CRC. T2DM patients without CRC (T2DM-only, n=300), T2DM with CRC (T2DM/CRC, n=135), cancer-free controls (Control, n=570), and CRC without T2DM (CRC-only, n=642) cases were enrolled. DNA samples were extracted from the peripheral blood leukocytes of the patients and sequenced by direct sequencing. The χ2 test was used to compare categorical data. We found that in T2DM patients, rs1111875 but not the rs7923837 in HHEX gene was associated with the occurrence of CRC (p= 0.006). for rs1111875, TC/CC patients had an increased risk of CRC (p=0.019, OR=1.592, 95%CI=1.046-2.423). Moreover, our results also indicated that the two variants of HEEX gene could be risk factors for CRC in general population, independent on T2DM (p< 0.001 for rs1111875, p=0.001 for rs7923837). For rs1111875, increased risk of CRC was observed in TC or TC/CC than CC individuals (p<0.001, OR= 1.780, 95%CI= 1.385-2.287; p<0.001, OR= 1.695, 95%CI= 1.335-2.152). For rs7923837, increased CRC risk was observed in AG, GG, and AG/GG than AA individuals (p< 0.001, OR= 1.520, 95%CI= 1.200-1.924; p=0.036, OR= 1.739, 95%CI= 0.989-3.058; p< 0.001, OR= 1.540, 95%CI= 1.225-1.936). This finding highlights the potentially functional alteration with HHEX rs1111875 and rs7923837 polymorphisms may increase CRC susceptibility. Risk effects and the functional impact of these polymorphisms need further validation.

BACKGROUND: Recent studies indicate that angiogenesis is important in the pathogenesis of acute myeloid leukemias (AMLs). Among the various AMLs, the bone marrow angiogenetic response is particularly pronounced in acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL). However, the molecular mechanisms responsible for this angiogenetic response are largely unknown. In the present study, we have explored the role of HHEX, a homeodomain transcription factor, as a possible mediator of the pro-angiogenetic response observed in APL. This transcription factor seems to represent an ideal candidate for this biologic function because it is targeted by PML-RARα, is capable of interaction with PML and PML-RARα, and acts as a regulator of the angiogenetic response.
METHODS: We used various cellular systems of APL, including primary APL cells and leukemic cells engineered to express PML-RARα, to explore the role of the PML-RARα fusion protein on HHEX expression. Molecular and biochemical techniques have been used to investigate the mechanisms through which PML-RARα downmodulates HHEX and the functional consequences of this downmodulation at the level of the expression of various angiogenetic genes, cell proliferation and differentiation.
RESULTS: Our results show that HHEX expression is clearly downmodulated in APL and that this effect is directly mediated by a repressive targeting of the HHEX gene promoter by PML-RARα. Studies carried out in primary APL cells and in a cell line model of APL with inducible PML-RARα expression directly support the view that this fusion protein through HHEX downmodulation stimulates the expression of various genes involved in angiogenesis and inhibits cell differentiation.
CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that HHEX downmodulation by PML-RARα is a key event during APL pathogenesis.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) has the third highest incidence worldwide. Epidemiological studies showed that the consumption of fruit and vegetables containing procyanidins (PCA), polymers of flavan-3-ols, is associated with lower CRC risk. However, the molecular mechanisms supporting this positive association are unclear. This study investigated the capacity of PCA with different degrees of polymerization to reduce CRC cell growth, characterizing the underlying mechanisms. Compared to the monomer ((-)-epicatechin) and the trimer, the hexamer (Hex) was the most active at reducing CRC cell viability. Hex caused a concentration- (2.5-50 μM) and time- (24-72 h) dependent decrease in the viability of six human CRC cell lines in culture. Hex caused CRC apoptotic Caco-2 cell death within 24 h, as evidenced by caspase 3 and caspase 9 activation, DNA fragmentation, and changes in nuclear morphology/staining. Hex-induced apoptosis occurs through the mitochondrial pathway, as evidenced by an increased Bad mitochondrial translocation, and cytochrome c release from the mitochondria to the cytosol. Hex also arrested the Caco-2 cell cycle at G

Unlike clustered HOX genes, the role of nonclustered homeobox gene family members in hematopoiesis and leukemogenesis has not been extensively studied. Here we found that the hematopoietically expressed homeobox gene Hhex is overexpressed in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and is essential for the initiation and propagation of MLL-ENL-induced AML but dispensable for normal myelopoiesis, indicating a specific requirement for Hhex for leukemic growth. Loss of Hhex leads to expression of the Cdkn2a-encoded tumor suppressors p16(INK4a) and p19(ARF), which are required for growth arrest and myeloid differentiation following Hhex deletion. Mechanistically, we show that Hhex binds to the Cdkn2a locus and directly interacts with the Polycomb-repressive complex 2 (PRC2) to enable H3K27me3-mediated epigenetic repression. Thus, Hhex is a potential therapeutic target that is specifically required for AML stem cells to repress tumor suppressor pathways and enable continued self-renewal.

Being told that you carry the gene abnormality for breast cancer is hard enough, then being told that you need surgery that will render you menopausal at a young age makes life even harder. Trying to navigate through the NHS, the genetics service, the gynaecology clinics, the gynaecology surgery, primary care services and finally menopause clinics has highlighted the need for cohesive and consistent advice for such women. This woman reports on her personal, generally positive, experience of this journey.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is frequently accompanied by insulin resistance (IR). The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the genetic association between insulin resistance and two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), namely rs7903146 (C/T) in transcription factor 7-like 2 (TCF7L2) and rs1111875 (A/G) in haematopoietically expressed homeobox (HHEX), is affected by PCOS status in Iranian women. The study participants consisted of 582 women with PCOS (cases) referred to the Reproductive Endocrinology Research Center and 504 subjects without PCOS (controls), randomly selected from the Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study. Cases and controls were further subdivided to two groups according to IR status: those with and without IR. IR was identified on the basis of homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) ≥2.63. The SNPs in TCF7L2 and HHEX were genotyped by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism. There were no significant differences in the distribution of genotypes and alleles between cases and controls (P<0.05). Among cases, the prevalence of the CC, CT and TT genotypes was 37.8%, 46.3% and 15.9%, respectively, whereas the prevalence of the AA, AG and GG genotypes was 13.5%, 46.1% and 40.4%, respectively. In the control group, the prevalence of the CC, CT and TT genotypes was 32.2%, 53.9% and 13.9%, respectively, whereas the prevalence of the AA, AG and GG genotypes was 11.3%, 48.6% and 40.0%, respectively. After adjustment for age and body mass index, the probability of IR was decreased by 49% among carriers of the A allele in the control group (95% confidence interval 0.33-0.78; P=0.002). The findings of the present study suggest that the association between IR and diabetogenic polymorphisms may be affected by PCOS status.

Nicotine as a cigarette component is an established risk factor for colorectal cancer tumorigenesis. The downstream signaling pathways of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAchRs) are believed to be responsible for the cellular effects. In the present study, we evaluated the effects and novel mechanisms for nicotine on the capacity for colorectal cancer cell invasion and metastasis. LOVO and SW620 colorectal cancer cells were stimulated with nicotine in vitro. A Transwell chamber model was applied to detect the capacity for tumor cell invasion. Assays for gelatin zymography and western blotting were applied to detect the activity and expression of metastasis-related matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), respectively. Signal transduction was assessed by immunoblotting for the phosphorylation of relevant signal molecules and the application of pharmaceutical inhibitors. We showed that nicotine increased LOVO and SW620 colorectal cancer cell invasion along with enhanced activity and expression of MMP-1, -2 and -9. Nicotine increased phosphorylation of p38, ERK, Akt and PI3K p85 but had no effect on phosphorylation of JNK, or NF-κB. Of the pharmaceutical inhibitors of U0126 (ERK1/2 inhibitor), LY294002 (Akt activation inhibitor), SB239063 (p38 MAPK activation inhibitor) and hexamethonium (Hex) (nAchRs inhibitor), the cellular and molecular effects were reduced by the applications of SB239063 and Hex. We concluded that nicotine stimulates the invasion and metastasis of colon cancer cells in vitro via activation of the nAchRs and the p38 MAPK downstream signaling pathway. Therefore, p38 MAPK may have potential as a therapeutic target for smoking-related human colorectal cancer metastasis.

Hepatic steatosis has been reported to be a risk factor for the development of liver cancer. The underlying mechanism for carcinogenesis remains to be elucidated. It has been postulated that cancer stem cells (CSCs) within tumor tissues are a subset of cells with stem cell properties of self-renewal and undifferentiation. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a saturated fatty acid, palmitate (PA), on CSC-like properties of human hepatoma HepG2 cells. We investigated the effects of PA on HepG2 cells and primary rat hepatocytes (PRH) by exposing them to PA to induce lipid accumulation. Significant fat accumulation was observed by Oil Red O staining in cells exposed to PA, and it was accompanied by significant increase in NFκB (p65) nuclear translocation in HepG2 cells. Notably, PA significantly enhanced the sphere forming ability of HepG2 cells, but not PRH. Furthermore, PA significantly increased stemness gene expressions of Sox2 and Oct4, and sonic hedgehog (Shh) production. Notably, NFκB inhibitors, N-Acetyl-L-cysteine and pyrollidine dithiocarbamate, and a NOX inhibitor, diphenyleneiodonium, significantly attenuated PA-induced sphere forming ability of HepG2 cells. Our results suggest that lipid accumulation may not only induce pro-inflammatory responses in hepatocytes but may also activate CSC-like properties of hepatoma cells through NFκB activation.

The use of droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) for low-level DNA mutation detection in cancer, prenatal diagnosis, and infectious diseases is growing rapidly. However, although ddPCR has been implemented successfully for detection of rare mutations at pre-determined positions, no ddPCR adaptation for mutation scanning exists. Yet, frequently, clinically relevant mutations reside on multiple sequence positions in tumor suppressor genes or complex hotspot mutations in oncogenes. Here, we describe a combination of coamplification at lower denaturation temperature PCR (COLD-PCR) with ddPCR that enables digital mutation scanning within approximately 50-bp sections of a target amplicon. Two FAM/HEX-labeled hydrolysis probes matching the wild-type sequence are used during ddPCR. The ratio of FAM/HEX-positive droplets is constant when wild-type amplicons are amplified but deviates when mutations anywhere under the FAM or HEX probes are present. To enhance the change in FAM/HEX ratio, we employed COLD-PCR cycling conditions that enrich mutation-containing amplicons anywhere on the sequence. We validated COLD-ddPCR on multiple mutations in TP53 and in EGFR using serial mutation dilutions and cell-free circulating DNA samples, and demonstrate detection down to approximately 0.2% to 1.2% mutation abundance. COLD-ddPCR enables a simple, rapid, and robust two-fluorophore detection method for the identification of multiple mutations during ddPCR and potentially can identify unknown DNA variants present in the target sequence.

The familial forms of non-medullary thyroid carcinoma (FNMTC) represent approximately 5 % of thyroid neoplasms. Nine FNMTC susceptibility loci have been mapped; however, only the DICER1 and SRGAP1 susceptibility genes have been identified. The transcription factors NKX2-1, FOXE1, PAX8, and HHEX are involved in the morphogenesis and differentiation of the thyroid. Recent studies have identified NKX2-1 germline mutations in FNMTC families. However, the role of high-penetrant FOXE1 variants in FNMTC etiology remains unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of FOXE1 germline mutations in the pathogenesis of FNMTC. We searched for molecular changes in the FOXE1 gene in the probands from 60 Portuguese families with FNMTC. In this series, we identified nine polymorphisms and one variant (c.743C>G, p.A248G) which was not previously described. This variant, which involved an amino acid residue conserved in evolution, segregated with disease in one family, and was also detected in an apparently unrelated case of sporadic NMTC. Functional studies were performed using rat normal thyroid cells (PCCL3) clones and human papillary thyroid carcinoma cell line (TPC-1) pools, expressing the wild type and mutant (p.A248G) forms of FOXE1. In these experiments, we observed that the p.A248G variant promoted cell proliferation and migration, suggesting that it may be involved in thyroid tumorigenesis. Additionally, somatic p.V600E BRAF mutations were also detected in the thyroid tumors of two members of the family carrying the p.A248G variant. This study represents the first evidence of involvement of a germline FOXE1 rare variant in FNMTC etiology and suggests that mutations in MAPK pathway-related genes may contribute to tumor development in these familial cases.

Identification of the thyroid transcription factors (TTFs), NKX2-1, FOXE1, PAX8 and HHEX, has considerably advanced our understanding of thyroid development, congenital thyroid disorders and thyroid cancer. The TTFs are fundamental to proper formation of the thyroid gland and for maintaining the functional differentiated state of the adult thyroid; however, they are not individually required for precursor cell commitment to a thyroid fate. Although knowledge of the mechanisms involved in thyroid development has increased, the full complement of genes involved in thyroid gland specification and the signals that trigger expression of the genes that encode the TTFs remain unknown. The mechanisms involved in thyroid organogenesis and differentiation have provided clues to identifying the genes that are involved in human congenital thyroid disorders and thyroid cancer. Mutations in the genes that encode the TTFs, as well as polymorphisms and epigenetic modifications, have been associated with thyroid pathologies. Here, we summarize the roles of the TTFs in thyroid development and the mechanisms by which they regulate expression of the genes involved in thyroid differentiation. We also address the implications of mutations in TTFs in thyroid diseases and in diseases not related to the thyroid gland.

c-Myc transcription factor is a key protein involved in cellular growth, proliferation and metabolism. c-Myc is one of the most frequently activated oncogenes, highlighting the need to identify intracellular molecules that interact directly with c-Myc to suppress its function. Here we show that Hhex is able to interact with the basic region/helix-loop-helix/leucine zipper of c-Myc. Knockdown of Hhex increases proliferation rate in hepatocellular carcinoma cells, whereas Hhex expression cell-autonomously reduces cell proliferation rate in multiple cell lines by increasing G1 phase length through a c-Myc-dependent mechanism. Global transcriptomic analysis shows that Hhex counter-regulates multiple c-Myc targets involved in cell proliferation and metabolism. Concomitantly, Hhex expression leads to reduced cell size, lower levels of cellular RNA, downregulation of metabolism-related genes, decreased sensitivity to methotrexate and severe reduction in the ability to form tumours in nude mouse xenografts, all indicative of decreased c-Myc activity. Our data suggest that Hhex is a novel regulator of c-Myc function that limits c-Myc activity in transformed cells.

Forkhead box E1 encodes the transcription factor FOXE1 (or TTF-2), which together with Homeobox protein NKX2-1, PAX8 and HHEX, are pivotal proteins required for thyroid gland formation, differentiation and function. Recently, genome-wide association studies have identified FOXE1 as a thyroid cancer (TC) susceptibility gene in populations of European descent. After that, a number of studies reported that the rs965513, rs1867277, and rs71369530 polymorphism in FOXE1 has been implicated in TC risk. However, the causal variants remain unknown. To derive a more precise estimation of the relationship, a meta-analysis of 9,828 TC cases and 109,995 controls from 14 case-control studies was performed. Overall, significant results were observed for rs965513 (OR=1.71, 95% CI: 1.59-1.85, P<10(-5)), rs1867277 (OR=1.64, 95% CI: 1.51-1.78, P<10(-5)) and rs71369530 (OR=2.01, 95% CI: 1.66-2.44, P<10(-5)) polymorphism. In the subgroup analysis by ethnicity, we found that rs965513 polymorphism confer high risk for Caucasians with per-allele OR of 1.80 (95% CI: 1.69-1.92, P<10(-5)) compared to East Asians of 1.35 (95% CI: 1.09-1.67, P=0.006). There was strong evidence of heterogeneity, which largely disappeared after stratification by ethnicity. In the subgroup analysis by sample size, and study design, significantly increased risks were found for the polymorphism. In conclusion, this meta-analysis demonstrated that common variations of FOXE1 are a risk factor associated with increased TC susceptibility.

BACKGROUND: Diabetes is associated with an increased risk of cancer. This study aimed to evaluate associations between recently reported type 2 diabetes (T2D) susceptibility genetic variants and cancer risk in a prospective cohort of Chinese patients with T2D.
METHODS: Seven single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in IGF2BP2, CDKAL1, SLC30A8, CDKN2A/B, HHEX and TCF7L2, all identified from genome-wide association studies of T2D, were genotyped in 5900 T2D patients [age mean ± SD = 57 ± 13 years, % males = 46] without any known cancer at baseline. Associations between new-onset of cancer and SNPs were tested by Cox proportional hazard models with adjustment of conventional risk factors.
RESULTS: During the mean follow-up period of 8.5 ± 3.3 years, 429 patients (7.3%) developed cancer. Of the T2D-related SNPs, the G-alleles of HHEX rs7923837 (hazard ratio [HR] (95% C.I.) = 1.34 (1.08-1.65); P = 6.7 ×10(-3) under dominant model) and TCF7L2 rs290481 (HR (95% C.I.) = 1.16 (1.01-1.33); P = 0.040 under additive model) were positively associated with cancer risk, while the G-allele of CDKAL1 rs7756992 was inversely associated (HR (95% C.I.) = 0.80 (0.65-1.00); P = 0.048 under recessive model). The risk alleles of these significant SNPs exhibited combined effect on increasing cancer risk (per-allele HR (95% C.I.) = 1.25 (1.12-1.39); P = 4.8 × 10(-5)). The adjusted cancer risk was 2.41 (95% C.I. 1.23-4.69) for patients with four risk alleles comparing to patients without risk allele.
CONCLUSIONS: T2D-related variants HHEX rs7923837, TCF7L2 rs290481 and CDKAL1 rs7756992 increased cancer risk in patients with diabetes.
IMPACT: Our findings provide novel insights into the pathogenesis of cancer in diabetes.

The LMO2 oncogene is deregulated in the majority of human T-cell leukemia cases and in most gene therapy-induced T-cell leukemias. We made transgenic mice with enforced expression of Lmo2 in T-cells by the CD2 promoter/enhancer. These transgenic mice developed highly penetrant T-ALL by two distinct patterns of gene expression: one in which there was concordant activation of Lyl1, Hhex, and Mycn or alternatively, with Notch1 target gene activation. Most strikingly, this gene expression clustering was conserved in human Early T-cell Precursor ALL (ETP-ALL), where LMO2, HHEX, LYL1, and MYCN were most highly expressed. We discovered that HHEX is a direct transcriptional target of LMO2 consistent with its concordant gene expression. Furthermore, conditional inactivation of Hhex in CD2-Lmo2 transgenic mice markedly attenuated T-ALL development, demonstrating that Hhex is a crucial mediator of Lmo2's oncogenic function. The CD2-Lmo2 transgenic mice offer mechanistic insight into concordant oncogene expression and provide a model for the highly treatment-resistant ETP-ALL subtype.

β-Hexosaminidase, involved in degradation of glycoproteins and glycosphingolipids, is altered in several tumours leading to enhanced migration capacity. To date, the expression of the β-hexosaminidase isoenzymes in prostate cancer cells has not been elucidated. By using PC3, LNCaP, DUCaP, MDAPCa 2b, and hyperplasic prostate (BPH-1) cell lines, we analysed the β-hexosaminidase activity in each cell line and determined β-hexosaminidase α subunit gene expression in PC3, LNCaP, and BPH-1. We then investigated the methylation status of the gene promoter and determined the cellular responses of PC3 and LNCaP after transfection with β-hexosaminidase α subunit. We found that each prostate cancer cell line had a decrease in total hexosaminidase activity and that the lack of hexosaminidase A activity, observed in PC3 and LNCaP cells, was associated with mRNA disappearance. The HEXA promoter region in LNCaP and PC3 cell lines had methylated CpG islands, as confirmed by 5'-Aza-2'-deoxycitidine treatment, in PC3 cells, used as cell cancer model. We also tested, the involvement of hexosaminidase A in the migration capacity by migration assay using Hex α subunit-transfected PC3. Finally, we found that, after Hex α subunit transfection, both PC3 and LNCaP were less susceptible to exogenous ceramide treatment. Results indicate a likely contribution of the lysosomal enzyme to the acquisition of cancerous features.

NUP98 is a recurrent fusion partner in chromosome translocations that cause acute myelogenous leukemia. NUP98, a nucleoporin, and its interaction partner Rae1, have been implicated in the control of chromosome segregation, but their mechanistic contributions to tumorigenesis have been unclear. Here, we show that expression of NUP98 fusion oncoproteins causes mitotic spindle defects and chromosome missegregation, correlating with the capability of NUP98 fusions to cause premature securin degradation and slippage from an unsatisfied spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC). NUP98 fusions, unlike wild-type NUP98, were found to physically interact with the anaphase promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C)(Cdc20) and to displace the BubR1 SAC component, suggesting a possible mechanistic basis for their interference with SAC function. In addition, NUP98 oncoproteins displayed a prolonged half-life in cells. We found that NUP98 stability is controlled by a PEST sequence, absent in NUP98 oncoproteins, whose deletion reproduced the aberrant SAC-interfering activity of NUP98 oncoproteins. Together, our findings suggest that NUP98 oncoproteins predispose myeloid cells to oncogenic transformation or malignant progression by promoting whole chromosome instability.

PRH/HHex (proline-rich homeodomain protein) is a transcription factor that controls cell proliferation and cell differentiation in a variety of tissues. Aberrant subcellular localisation of PRH is associated with breast cancer and thyroid cancer. Further, in blast crisis chronic myeloid leukaemia, and a subset of acute myeloid leukaemias, PRH is aberrantly localised and its activity is downregulated. Here we show that PRH is involved in the regulation of cell migration and cancer cell invasion. We show for the first time that PRH is expressed in prostate cells and that a decrease in PRH protein levels increases the migration of normal prostate epithelial cells. We show that a decrease in PRH protein levels also increases the migration of normal breast epithelial cells. Conversely, PRH overexpression inhibits cell migration and cell invasion by PC3 and DU145 prostate cancer cells and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Previous work has shown that the transforming growth factor-β co-receptor Endoglin inhibits the migration of prostate and breast cancer cells. Here we show that PRH can bind to the Endoglin promoter in immortalised prostate and breast cells. PRH overexpression in these cells results in increased Endoglin protein expression, whereas PRH knockdown results in decreased Endoglin protein expression. Moreover, we demonstrate that Endoglin overexpression abrogates the increased migration shown by PRH knockdown cells. Our data suggest that PRH controls the migration of multiple epithelial cell lineages in part at least through the direct transcriptional regulation of Endoglin. We discuss these results in terms of the functions of PRH in normal cells and the mislocalisation of PRH seen in multiple cancer cell types.

BMI1 is the first functional mammalian Polycomb group (PcG) proto-oncogene involved in multiple biological processes. Regulation of B cell-specific Moloney murine leukaemia virus integration site 1 (BMI1) expression with increase in histological grades of breast carcinoma in correlation with hormone receptor status was studied in 60 Indian breast cancer patient's formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue blocks. Relative expression of BMI1 was studied using real-time PCR. Immunohistochemistry explained the distribution of hormone receptor markers. Correlation of BMI1 gene expression with oestrogen receptor, progesterone receptor (PR) and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2/neu status was analysed using Hex-protein docking tool. The hormone receptor expression was reduced with increasing grades of breast tumour. BMI1 gene expression was downregulated (real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis). Docking analysis explained the correlation between BMI1 and PR expression. BMI1 gene was co-regulated (down) with PR in the invasive ductal breast carcinoma with relative progression explicating it a diagnostic biomarker for ductal carcinoma of the breast.